Interface Focus recently published a theme issue on ‘’. In this blog post, Guest Editor Professor Jonathan Rossiter (University of Bristol) tells us more about the theme issue.
Please can you introduce the issue and tell us what it’s about?
This issue focuses on a Cyborg Future where humans are repaired with artificial versions of their failing organs. In particular, we concentrate on muscles, the primary enablers of movement, manipulation and independence. As people age or suffer disability such as stroke, they lose muscle strength and control. At present, there are very limited solutions to address these conditions: mobility aids can provide targeted assistance —for example a walker frame to help with stability— but they do not address the problem at its source: the weak muscles inside the body.
In this issue, we present implantable artificial muscles as a potential solution to treat muscle weakness. We explore the underlying technologies that are needed to realise implantable artificial muscles, from actuation mechanisms that convert electrical energy directly into muscle-like forces to bio-interfacing systems that bridge the gap between stiff bone and soft muscle. Social and safety aspects of this disruptive technology are also considered, including ethical and regulatory considerations: in addition to the technical question, ‘Can we implant artificial muscles?’ we must also consider the trustworthiness of these systems and ask, ‘Should we implant artificial muscles?’
What is the importance of taking a cross-disciplinary approach to your research?
Implanting any new technology inside the body is challenging, and this is particularly the case for artificial muscles that would transfer significant forces and energy into the body. Teams from diverse disciplines including bioengineering and tissue culture, robotics and smart materials, and neurological interfacing and control have come together with partners in surgery, patient and public engagement, and microfabrication, to tackle this research topic. This cross-disciplinary approach is essential to ensure all component parts are developed together to meet the needs of patients and potential users. It is also essential to incorporate the lived experiences of patients and end users. This was achieved by wide patient and public engagement activities including the .
How was your experience publishing with Interface Focus?
The Guest Editors very much enjoyed working with the Interface Focus team. This exciting topic stimulates many scientific questions and social issues, and we were encouraged to include a broad range of topics in this issue. This has resulted in the first dedicated volume of research in Cyborg Futures and implantable artificial muscles. The Interface Focus team have been very supportive of the topic and have helped the authors throughout the submission and review process, efficiently answering queries while keeping scientific rigour paramount.
What are the next steps for this line of research?
We have learnt a lot from the 5-year EPSRC-funded , which developed the implantable muscles that laid the foundations for this issue and the Royal Society Discussion Meeting on Cyborg Futures held in June 2025. The emPOWER project targeted 2050 as the date when implantable artificial muscles enter clinical use in the NHS. We still have almost 25 years before that target deployment date, and much work to do! For example, our research has highlighted the importance of energy management and neurological control in future implantable artificial muscles.
Our next steps include optimising the energy flow into and out of the muscles when they are inside the human body, and working toward closer biosymbiotic control by interfacing directly with the peripheral nervous system. In this way, we hope to contribute to a Cyborg Future where people maintain their independence and quality of life for as long as possible.
Keep up to date with the latest issues of Interface Focus by signing up for content alerts, and browsing on the journal website. We are always looking for proposals for new issues of Interface Focus – .
Journal cover image: “The integration of actuation and sensorimotor control principles from human skeletal muscle into artificial muscle.” Credit: Adapted by Yuejun Xu from Figure 1 in Xu, Y., Wen, J., Burdet, E. et al. Monolithic electrostatic actuators with independent stiffness modulation. Nat Commun 16, 1174 (2025). .
